Nutrient management for irrigated crops in MN: Corn, potatoes, & edible beans
Hello, and welcome back to University of Minnesota Extension's Nutrient Management Podcast. I'm your host, Jack Wilcox, in communications here with Extension.
Jack Wilcox:Today, we'll discuss nutrient management for irrigated crops in Minnesota, like corn, potato, and edible bean. We have three guests with us here today. Can you each introduce yourselves?
Daniel Kaiser:This is Daniel Kaiser. I'm a nutrient management specialist with the University of Minnesota. I work with fertilizer guidelines for corn, soybeans, mostly agronomic crops.
Carl Rosen:Hi. I'm Carl Rosen. I'm also a nutrient management specialist at the University of Minnesota, and I work primarily with irrigated specialty crops, including potatoes, the rotation crops as well, corn and soybeans as needed.
Vasu Sharma:Hi. I am Vasu Sharma. I also work at University of Minnesota in soil water and climate. I'm assistant professor. My focus is on irrigation water management, and my work centers around both irrigation and nutrient management and how we can better utilize these resources.
Vasu Sharma:So I study how soil water dynamics interact with nutrient management management and conservation practices, essentially how water moves through the soil and crop, and how we can manage that more efficiently for for sustainable farming.
Jack Wilcox:Vasu Sharma, what's the current state of irrigation in Minnesota?
Vasu Sharma:So Minnesota, in in Minnesota, we irrigate around 750,000 acres, of of cropland, which is not if you compare it with total cropland, not a very big number, but we use a lot of water to to irrigate these lands, and it has been steadily increasing. So if you look at 1975, we were having around 100 175,000 acres, and today, around 750,000 acres which are irrigated, which is a huge increase in recent years. And if you look at the irrigated permits, we have around 800,000 irrigated permits from acres that are permitted through DNR. I would say that it's it's growing, and there there are many benefits to irrigation, and that's why one reason it's growing. But other reason would be the weather changes and the climate changes that we see in the recent years.
Vasu Sharma:In terms of the location, we usually see irrigation in the Central Sands region of of the state because those are the soil which are which needs irrigation. They are the coarse textured soils that cannot hold much water, so they need to be irrigated for for beneficial crop production.
Carl Rosen:The dominant crop that's irrigated is corn, followed by soybean and then dry beans and then potato. We have some canning crops that are also irrigated, but those are the dominant crops that are that are irrigated.
Vasu Sharma:Mostly 98% of the potatoes that are grown in the state are irrigated, And we have we are we are seeing more acreage under potato irrigation in in in Central Sands region. So it is it is related to increase in corn and soybean, but also other crops are are increasing.
Carl Rosen:Potatoes are kind of minor in terms of, if you compare it to corn and soybean. Yeah. The thing about potatoes, it a lot of it's related to market. So if you don't have a market to sell potatoes, you're not gonna be increasing your acreage that much. So we're usually somewhere around 40 to 45,000 acres on on potatoes.
Carl Rosen:If it's a good if it the forecast is for, you know, a good market, then there may be an increase due to that. But almost all the potatoes are irrigated in Minnesota just because of the quality attributes associated with irrigation and and potato production.
Jack Wilcox:Carl Rosen, what are the benefits and risks of irrigation?
Carl Rosen:Yeah. In terms of risk, as Vasu mentioned, these are sandy soils. They have low water holding capacity. And so with that comes the potential risk for movement of nutrients, particularly nitrate with irrigation rainfall. If you irrigate properly, you should be able to control the amount of irrigation or the amount of leaching.
Carl Rosen:But, in Minnesota, we have unpredictable rainfall. And when that happens, that's when you get the, the potential for, leaching. So there's a lot of processes involved and management practices that can be done to help reduce that, that leaching loss. Another risk is also aquifer depletion. Depends on the year.
Carl Rosen:Fortunately, in miss in Minnesota, we do have, aquifer recharge because of rainfall. But if we have extended periods of drought, that's where there's times where the the aquifer can, be depleted or at least, at lower levels than than what would be the average. So we need to be a little concerned about that, and that brings into, again, management practices, managing that water efficiently.
Vasu Sharma:Nutrient leaching is is one of the major risks that we see under irrigated agriculture. Rain that we cannot control, but we can control irrigation. So when we are irrigating, if we are over irrigating, over applying that water than what our soils can hold, there is a potential of losing those nutrients down and and and moving them to the groundwater, which is a potential risk. The aquifer depletion part, they're mainly the Minnesota aquifers are healthy. What Carl said, we recharge them very frequently, but there are some areas that faces pressure.
Vasu Sharma:So there is a concern about depletion as well and mainly in in very short period of of the year when we irrigate a lot. So July and August months are are very critical when if it is a dry year, like 2021, when we use so much water, there could be a a direct impact on on nearby lakes and rivers or maybe other drinking water wells. So that's that's some risks that's that are associated with irrigated agriculture.
Jack Wilcox:Talk to us about the aquifer here in Minnesota. How fast does it recharge, for example?
Vasu Sharma:Yeah. So as as Carl said, the recharge is good. Recently, Irrigator Association of Minnesota have looked at the data very deeply. The DNR collects this observation well data over over litigated acres in the state, and they looked at that depletion isn't that like, we don't see it. Overall, from 1970 still now, most of the the observation wells, we see that straight line.
Vasu Sharma:You know? But you see that that variation over year over year. So there's no decline overall. There's no trend, but you see that when there is heavy irrigation happening in summer months, you see a decline, and then it recharge recharges back. But there are certain areas in the Central Sands region where you see a slight decline as well over years.
Vasu Sharma:And in comparison to, you know, Western states, we are in much better situation right now or or maybe for the future as well because we do get those rains that we need to to replenish it back.
Carl Rosen:Yeah. Usually during the drought years where you really see some depletion. But as I mentioned, in subsequent years, like 2024 was a very wet year, so there was a lot of replenishment then. So you don't see the depletion during those years. You see it during 2021 year as as you mentioned.
Carl Rosen:2023 was also a dry year, and we saw depletion then as well. But it varies, and it it does get replenished, and we're we're very fortunate to be in a climate where where that can happen.
Jack Wilcox:Dan, what are ways that farmers can mitigate some of the risks associated with irrigation?
Daniel Kaiser:You know, the main issue with a lot of our sandier soil, our irrigated soils, the fact they are on sands. And when it comes to loss, we know that nitrate can move relatively quickly. So putting or front loading all your nitrogen upfront, specifically, you know, we know that corn doesn't really start rapidly taking up nitrogen until you get to about v eight, v 10, somewhere in there, then it really starts to take off. There's some substantial risks. I mean, the other thing I think that people don't think about those with, sandier soils is, you know, looking at maintaining nitrogen, lot of times, we talk about trying to maintain the nitrogen in the ammonium form, n h four form, which is a positive.
Daniel Kaiser:It's a a cation or positively charged ion that the majority of our high clay soils will hold that ammonium and it won't leach, but that's not the case on sands because we know that, you know, potassium, ammonium, and anything that we have that's positively charged ion, there isn't a a, you know, high capacity to absorb those so they can move. So that's really the main thing really in in why if you look at our nitrogen best management practice for corn, a lot of the focus is on split applications. And a lot of that's the time the nitrogen nitrogen and make sure there's availability at key points in time when the the crop is rapidly taking it up that doesn't put a lot of the nitrogen at risk. So if you look at historically, our BMPs were recommending, for corn, just a single split where you put some down at planting that come in at at v five. I think a lot of our growers have gone beyond that.
Daniel Kaiser:And they're, if you look at kinda with fertigation and, you know, with with more splits, they are able to really manage things better in terms of reducing the potential risk for loss. But timing is really the big one. I mean, additives inhibitors, I mean, are out there. Really, the thing about these inhibitors is that as we get into the season I mean, I'm gonna throw ESN out as as or polymer coated ureas differently because a whole different controlling method. If you look at just straight up like nitropyran and products like Agritain, I mean, we know that they will work on sands.
Daniel Kaiser:It's just the warmer the soils, the quicker they tend to kind of, I don't say, wear out, but they they lose their effectiveness in terms of holding it. I mean, are some instances where we can work some of these, sources and additives in, I think, and and be successful, but still timing is really the main key. And a lot of that's really just because of the, you know, the lack or the the the speed at which we can we can leach nitrate is relatively fast in many of these irrigated soils.
Vasu Sharma:Proper scheduling is is really important in mitigating that risk. So if you're using soil moisture sensors or weather data tools like irrigation management assistant tool to somehow know when to irrigate, how much to irrigate, that is really important because we need to keep that water and nutrients in the soil profile that we that we have. What we have seen in research so we conducted this research, and I'll talk more about it later. So this is this was five year research in Central Sands region, two locations where we looked at different limited irrigation rates other than 100%. So lower irrigation rates and how they interact with nutrient management.
Vasu Sharma:What we found that if we reduce irrigation by 75%, so if we do not full fill our profile back to 100% field capacity and leave some room, especially in wet years, like this year or last year, we actually get same yield. There's no statistical difference, but less leaching. And, you know, same yield, less leaching, which is a win win situation. So there is data now that, you know, we we found that lower rates of irrigation, especially in wet years, would be beneficial for these central sands region. And, also, the uptake the nutrient uptake was better under these limited irrigation treatments.
Carl Rosen:Yeah. I can follow-up on that as well. We've done a lot of work with some of these enhanced efficiency type fertilizers that Dan was talking about, and we've also been looking at irrigation. And what we've found is that these products do work on sands as Dan mentioned. They help reduce risk, especially when you compare it to, say, a single application.
Carl Rosen:When you start splitting the applications that, you know, you don't see as much difference, but they do add some convenience in there when you when you use those products. What we've also found is that if you manage everything, your nutrients optimally, the next big thing is really, as Vasu mentioned, is irrigation practices. If you over irrigate, no matter how well you manage your nitrogen, you're going to get the leaching. So following those practices that reduce exceeding the water holding capacity of the soil will help immensely.
Daniel Kaiser:There's one other thing too I can kinda come back to, and, you know, we do have some recommendations, you know, potentially for early applications on some of our our our core structured soils for things like, if you're using anhydrous, nitropyrin, Nserve. I mean, really, the issue, though, is you have to think about is that, you know, if you look at the the effectiveness of a lot of these products, they do vary by soil. And specifically with, like, something like nitropyrin that, we get a much greater effectiveness with high clay soils and high organic soils that can absorb the nitropyr into the the soil to keep it in a more available form. So, I mean, they aren't foolproof, and that's kinda where you know, if we look at where the technology is now, I mean, really stretching the applications out are really the best thing. I think most growers are doing that.
Daniel Kaiser:I mean, Carl and Vasukin, you know, said that many a lot of growers are they're split applying. You don't see really many or, you know, many growers that are just going with a with a single application because they know essentially it makes sense economically to do so. So, you know, a lot of this stuff, while there there can be some improvements there at foolproof and, you know, still the baseline I can see kind of moving to the future is split applications with with many of these irrigated soils.
Jack Wilcox:Dan, remind us what sorption is for those that might not know the term.
Daniel Kaiser:Well, sorption essentially is just where the soil is retaining the molecule or whatever. It's not it's just there temporarily, or it kinda holds on to it. And that's the main thing with since some of these these products and especially with sandy sandier soils that they just they don't have the capacity. The water moves through them quickly, and, you know, some of these things just maybe not not stick around for as long just because they're not held by the soil.
Vasu Sharma:And the other important topic to dive into is how we can improve soil health to mitigate this risk. So cover crop and conservation tillage is one area that can be of importance. So recently, I was two days ago, actually, I was in a defense. So doctor Fabian Fernandez doing research in Westport area where they looked at how cura clover living mulch, you know, can improve soil and then help with better efficient nutrient management. And they have seen substantial reductions in nitrate leaching with this planting green, you know, Keura clover with with corn and soybean rotation.
Vasu Sharma:So there is a room for part for cover crops and conservation tillage in this area as well Yeah. To to has to improve soil structure.
Jack Wilcox:Within the sandy soils.
Vasu Sharma:Within the sandy soils area. Yes.
Carl Rosen:Yeah. The the problem with Keira clover is it can result in some Yeah. Yield, depression, so we need to be a little careful with that. But I do wanna follow-up on the cover crops and other types of crops that are grown. So, you know, if you have a shorter season crop, something like edible beans, you know, earlier harvested potatoes, some of the canning crops, some of these products that extend the the amount of nitrogen availability through the season might might actually work against you a little bit at times because you'll have you're not taking you don't have the season for the plants to take it up because they're they're being harvested.
Carl Rosen:So you need to be a little bit bit careful about that, particularly with things like early harvested potatoes. You wanna make sure that, most of the nitrogen is used. But, some of these earlier harvested crops, I think it's very important to get a cover crop in, something simple like, winter rye, for example. And you will see, any crop that's harvested in, say, late July, early August, that there's substantial potential for any residual nitrogen to be lost. So getting a cover crop in from that standpoint is important.
Carl Rosen:Also, just for the following year for blowing of of the soil, it's good to have that cover in there in the fall and and in early spring when possible.
Jack Wilcox:Vasu, talk to us about irrigation research in Minnesota. You just finished up a a large study, didn't you?
Vasu Sharma:Yeah. So we we started this research in 2020, and our goal was to look at how there are various objectives, but one of the major objectives was to find that how irrigation interacts with nitrogen management and what is that sweet spot where both of these inputs, you know, we don't have any loss to the environment of these resources, but at the same time, we increase our profitability. So we looked at four irrigation rates, which includes one rain fed and 100% irrigation, which is filling the soil profile back its full capacity, and then two reduced irrigation rates, which is 7550%. And then we had six nitrogen rates starting from zero to 350 pounds of nitrogen per acre. And from five years of data, which is mix of dry years, wet years, you know, so we have we have all of the years that and average years.
Vasu Sharma:So we have good data, and we averaged everything. And from five years of data, what we concluded is that in mostly wet years, if we reduce our irrigation by 25%, so bring it from 100% to 75%, which essentially means that whenever we irrigate, we do not fill our profile back to its full capacity, but leave some room for that potential rain so that we don't lose our nutrients to groundwater, that is actually more beneficial than if we put 100% irrigation in terms of both yield. And we reduced at Becker site. I I think we reduced our nitrate leaching by around 20 to 25%, which is a big number if if you look at how many pounds we are losing into into leaching. That that study is concluded.
Vasu Sharma:So the new study at the same location we we look we are looking at this is the first year of that study. It's a village cover crop irrigation study, and the goal of that study is to look at how different climate scenarios. So if we have optimum rain, if we have above average too much rain, too less rain. So we are mimicking those scenarios through irrigation system and then having tillage, no tillage, and cover crop, no cover crop plots. So it's a mix of these three factors under corn and soybean.
Vasu Sharma:So it's a corn soybean rotation. So our goal is to look at how these conservation practices would help improving soil structure, improving irrigation management, water holding capacity, evapotranspiration. So all the water agriculture water management components, and then at the end, how it impacts nitrate leaching. So we are measuring below our corn and soybean rooting depth. We are measuring that water every week and looking for nitrate in in the groundwater.
Carl Rosen:Yeah. We're also doing some irrigations experiments on potatoes as well, and we're looking at deficit irrigation. And we're finding similar things that Sue found in wetter years. If you can reduce that irrigation, it it works. We're also looking at when the more critical times to apply irrigation is.
Carl Rosen:For example, would it be better to apply it early if there's a a water allocation issue? Should you put apply it early, late, middle? That's some ongoing research that we're looking at as well. It gets a little challenging in our in our climate in in Minnesota with weather conditions. You can't predict the weather, so sometimes if you have a treatment where you are not supposed to be applying irrigation but you get a lot of rainfall, it it kind of makes it a challenge to figure out the optimal timing of the irrigation.
Carl Rosen:But I think with a number of years, we should be able to to figure that out over time.
Vasu Sharma:And and one thing that is really important out of these studies, so the first study, the five year study that I talked about and the studies that Carl is talking about, we are developing some best management practices for these crops. So we are collecting soil moisture data that would enable us to calculate evapotranspiration of these cropping systems that would tell us that in a season, no matter if it is from irrigation or from rainfall, whatever water is coming in, how much this crop is using, what is its maximum usage. So those numbers are really important for policy making. So if, let's say, is using some amount of water in the growing season, that number is really important based on how much we are getting in rain. If you subtract that, that's much that's how much you would need in irrigation to have that profitable crop.
Vasu Sharma:Right? So those evapotranspiration numbers are really, really important for making these policies and regulations. So the water is permitted through DNR. So I think this would be a very useful number for making best management practices for these cropping systems.
Jack Wilcox:Vasu, what do you mean when you say evapotranspiration?
Vasu Sharma:Yes. So it's evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration from from roots up to the stem and then the leaves and then goes out. So in in combination, it's called evapotranspiration. Yeah.
Daniel Kaiser:So one of the main challenges that we have, you know, with research wise is just having the locations for research. I know Vasu and Carl have done some work on irrigation on farm, but it does get to be challenging, particularly with, I guess, for me, research trials of growers using fertigation is how do you manage that and try to do some of research you have in in some of these center pivot systems. So we I mean, right now, we've got the University of Minnesota site at Becker, which is kind of a long term site where we've got a few lateral move irrigator systems, make it a lot easier to control things on a research side. There is a site, I think, owned by the Department of Agriculture up at Westport. I know Vasu has some data there.
Daniel Kaiser:And then the with Central Lake College, the Ag and Energy Center at Staples too is another spot that I've personally done some work with up there that we've been working on some research. My main focus has been that we've had some nitrogen trials in the past. Most of that now, Fabian Fernandez, has been really, you know, working on more of of that research. I'm doing some dry bean work now, looking at nitrogen rates. I mean, one of the interesting things is not seeing as much response under irrigation even though the, visually, you can see a lot of new deficiencies in the low end with, with edible beans, and this is kidney beans, black beans, and navy beans.
Daniel Kaiser:So that hopefully, the end of the year or so here, we'll have, some information on some of that, where we're looking at some of the the recommendations. One of the other things, you know, interesting I've been looking at is sulfur and chloride. I mean, looking specifically at, you know, chloride over applications. I mean, it's one of the things that if you look at well water in Minnesota, there's pretty high levels of sulfate and chloride in it, and I see some issues with soybeans every once in a while since the the soils on many of our irrigated sites are if you look at our low in potassium, so we recommend a lot of potassium for for those soils. And, you know, it's one of the things I'm really looking at right now whether or not that's a mistake and the fact that we may not need as much.
Daniel Kaiser:So there's a fair amount going on. It'd just be nice to have more dedicated areas with irrigation to be able to do it, but we also have to be in the areas where most of the irrigated acres are. You know, they've been a pretty good investment in the new site at Becker and, you know, been pretty happy with some of the results there. A fair amount going on. I'll put a plug in for the Minnesota Crown news.
Daniel Kaiser:We'll have a lot of our data that whether it's irrigated or not, and a lot of the stuff that I do, I try to just include an irrigated site for comparison that a lot of that information gets put out through, some of our blog posts. So I'll I'll put a plug in for that if you're looking at more information. Vasu just field day in 2024 was early or 2025 was early July. So by the time this is released, we're already past that. There's a number of things going on if you are interested in in irrigation, in in some of the management that there there's a few resources to look for.
Vasu Sharma:Talking about research, one other area we are exploring a lot in terms of irrigation is precision irrigation management and variable rate irrigation. So applying water only to the areas where it is needed and not applying the same amount in areas where it is not required. So each field has, you know, spatial variability. Some areas, even the central sands region where we define soils at as coarse textured soil. Some fields have some big areas which are more heavier soil, so they don't need that amount of irrigation as the sandier soil.
Vasu Sharma:So variable rate irrigation helps with that, and we have been doing research in managing how we can create prescription maps, you know, how we can manage that spatial variability and apply right amount of water at right location. So we are investing into remote sensing and the VIA crop coefficient curves that growers can use in season for managing those kinds of systems. We are looking at electrical conductivity data, soils data, how we can manage those and try to create prescription maps based on different kinds of spatial variabilities in the field.
Carl Rosen:To talk about the Becker site, those linear systems that Dan mentioned have the ability to do variable rates. So it really makes it an ideal site for doing some of the research that we have. And on farm research can be a challenge, as Dan mentioned, particularly because growers will often fertigate, and so it's hard to to get a lot of the controls in there that we want want to see. And so the some of these experimental sites that Dan mentioned are extremely important because then we can control what is being applied. And I also want to, follow-up on what Dan mentioned about, chloride and and things, other other nutrients like sulfate.
Carl Rosen:Those are leachable nutrients. Chloride's very leachable. We we see fairly high levels in in our leachate water. I think that that's something that we're going to to need to to address in future research as well. I also wanna mention that in terms of accounting for all nitrogen sources, there is nitrate in our groundwater, and that will vary depending on location.
Carl Rosen:And if you have higher levels of nitrate in your groundwater, that should be accounted for in the nitrogen input. I encourage growers that are irrigating to know what what's in their irrigation water and know what's being applied. And that's particularly true if you're growing soybeans and you have high chloride in your irrigation water, that can be an issue.
Jack Wilcox:So we talked a bit about, and you highlighted, consider 75% irrigation as a starting point. Let's say we have a grower who's considering adopting this practice. When you're standing out there in the field, sometimes theory and experiments are hard to trust. Yep. What would you suggest for farmers considering adopting this practice if it looks a little bit risky?
Vasu Sharma:From psychological standpoint, I think if they look at the data in real time, that would really help. So if you have soil moisture sensors, let's say, in the field, and you are looking that data on your screen every day, that will give you confidence. Even if you are putting 75%, if your soil moisture is in the range of, you know, above the threshold, that allowable depletion line, that means your crop have enough water. It's just that maybe on if you are irrigating, just looking at the field and the crop looks very, like, stressed and you irrigate, it might not be a right way of, you know, doing it. If if there is enough moisture in the soil, it's okay.
Vasu Sharma:You know? Sometimes trying new things takes long time, and it's hard. But if you have data in front of you, I think that would that would really help. So I I would would encourage growers if you are trying to use some of the newer strategies that we are developing at the EU and you don't have that much confidence, it's it's it's it's good to have some data that's coming out of your field. So it deploys some soil moisture sensors at various locations in this in the field and and look at the data and make a decision for yourself.
Vasu Sharma:If if it is going really, you know, below that threshold line, if there is really not enough water in the soil profile, it's better to irrigate. And and it's not 100% foolproof. It works on our, research site. It might not work on some of the fields. So that's also, one thing that everybody should, consider looking at their own field and looking at their own soil moisture data to to make decisions.
Jack Wilcox:Tell us a little bit about your research site. How many acres is it, for example?
Vasu Sharma:So it's a small plot study at Becker Site, so Sandpain Research Farm Site. We have around six acres, and we are doing this at Westport site, which is in Pope County, more West Central, and we have around 11 to 12 acres in in that. In comparison to commercial fields, you know, it's not a very big area. It's still a small plot study. So it's important that we we have some growers collaborate with us looking at this on big farms, and we we see if that works on those farms as well.
Jack Wilcox:Vasu, an interesting point from your study was that too little irrigation in dry years can also lead to nitrate loss. Could you explain a little bit about how that works?
Vasu Sharma:Yes. So we we actually had rain fed plots as well where we did not irrigate at all, but we did put all rates of nitrogen that I I discussed from zero to 350 pounds. And what we saw and we have been collecting plant samples, so to look at the nitrogen uptake during the growing season. We also collected soil samples after harvest. And what we saw is that there was more residual nitrogen left in the soil profile under rain fed conditions than under irrigated conditions, mostly in dry years because there was higher uptake of those nutrients when we were applying water.
Vasu Sharma:So crop was uptaking it very quickly. Whereas in rain fed conditions, there was no water there. So we were applying nitrogen, but crop was not able to uptake it. So the roots were not that deep, and and there was no water to uptake those nutrients. So and it not this was not just for dry years.
Vasu Sharma:We also saw the same trend in some wet years as well, so higher leaching in rain fed plots and less less uptake. So more residual nitrogen in in the soil under rain fed. So what we saw it's very interesting, actually, that limited irrigation works best. And why I say that? Because rain fed also is not best.
Vasu Sharma:So in in in these sandier soils, we do need irrigation for profitable crop production, but at the same time, to uptake those nutrients, we need water. So rain fed also is not a a beneficial practice from what we see from the research data.
Jack Wilcox:And we'll provide a link to Vasu's study in our notes here. Are there any last words from the group?
Vasu Sharma:I would I would say I shed a light on some VRI, variable rate irrigation systems. They really work, but what we we have been seeing around is we don't know which fields would need a variable irrigation system, which won't. So it's really important for growers to look at their field. If there is spatial variability and some amount of spatial variability, maybe VRI is a good investment. But in fields which are you know, there's less spatial variability, I won't think it would be a beneficial investment.
Vasu Sharma:So that's really important. I I would say a take home message, if you are investing, you are thinking about precision irrigation, think about if you need it.
Jack Wilcox:That was Vasu Sharma, Carl Rosen, and Daniel Kaiser. Thank you all for being here.
Carl Rosen:Thanks, Jack.
Vasu Sharma:Thanks, Jack.
Jack Wilcox:Do you have a question about something on your farm? Just send us an email here at nutmgmt@umn.edu. Thanks a lot for listening and we look forward to seeing you next time.
Jack Wilcox:We'd like to thank the Agricultural Fertilizer Research and Education Council or AFREC for supporting the podcast.
